The Sixteenth Century . . .

The mechanically more complex harpsichord appears to have caught up with the clavichord early in the 16th century judging by the sophistication of the earliest surviving harpsichords, commencing 1521. Each of these instruments is Italian; a few Northern examples have survived from later in the century by Flemish makers. The earliest surviving clavichords are also Italian. Although references to them begin as early as 1507 and continue until 1618,⁹ there are only four extant Renaissance instruments, all of which can be dated between c1540 and c1580. While they bear some resemblance to the 15th-century, late medieval instrument with their projecting keyboards and light construction, their keyboard and soundboard design is more sophisticated. The Renaissance models are further distinguished from the earlier instruments by their quadruple fretting and an increase in their keyboard range to 45 notes, C/E - c”’.

Michael Praetorius illustrates these Renaissance clavichords as late as 1618 and recommends the instrument as ‘the basis of all keyboard playing’. He also reminds us of one of the clavichord's nicest features, that it stays in tune ‘for months and years,' (which is almost true) and that ‘it never needs requilling',¹⁰ (which is completely true . . . and totally irrelevant). In any case, it is the Italian harpsichord which appears to have been far more popular in the 16th Century, based upon the greater number of them which have survived quite a few of these show the remains of pedal pull-downs for organists.

Despite the possible selection of quiet 'practice stops' permitted by organs of this period, the fixed church organ would have been more inconvenient than ever for such purposes. Not only would such practice require the help of pumpers, a lose-lose situation proving boring-for-the-pumper¹¹ yet costly-for-the-organist, but candles would have been necessary to read all that new music during those nocturnal hours in which the organ was most likely available for practice. I imagine the use of public buildings by one or two persons at night would have been prohibited for fear of fire which could be started by unattended candles. A further discomfort associated with post-medieval organ practice is that playing had become a sedentary sort of activity. Churches were often cold enough during the day much of the year, let alone at night, requiring the setting of a bonfire next to one's self on the bench just to keep warm.

The Seventeenth Century . . .

The clavichord continued to flourish in other parts of Europe with the exception of the Low Countries and France where it became replaced by an interest in regional styles of harpsichord building during the 17th and 18th centuries. During this period, a third type of clavichord became popular which had actually made its appearance as early as 1587.¹² Of this type, now known as the German clavichord, there are many references and surviving examples beginning from the first part of the 17th century, mostly German, and later Swedish, as well as Portuguese and Spanish to a lesser extent. These instruments are totally different from the late medieval and Renaissance clavichords of the 15th and 16th century's. In addition to the expected changes to fretting, the keylevers of the German clavichord are of more equal length from bass to treble yielding a more even touch. This important development required a structurally compromised sort of diagonal stringing which, in turn, required a much heavier case construction resulting in a more sustaining tone quality. They are easily distinguished from earlier types of clavichords by their completely rectangular case with an enclosed keyboard and S-shaped bridge. These are the clavichords which have become most familiar to us in this century. The earliest of this type was popular throughout the 17th century. It has the same four-octave range as the Renaissance clavichord but is usually triple or double-fretted.

The Eighteenth Century . . .

About 1690, this instrument was being replaced by an exclusively double-fretted model which remained popular until the end of the 18th century. These are a bit larger in size and range, always of four chromatic octaves or more, C - c”’ to AA - f”’, and include the excellent instruments of C.G. Hubert from the 1780’s which have become justly celebrated in recent years. Although unfretted instruments were mysteriously recommended by Johannes Speth as early as 1693 for his pieces which do not require them, these largest of clavichords are better associated with the last half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th. The last reference, of which I am aware, to these instruments can be found in a Swedish water color of 1856.¹³ A typical unfretted clavichord keyboard range is five octaves, FF - f”’, the range of many contemporaneous harpsichords and fortepianos.

Historical Endorsements . . .

The clavichord continued to be recommended for the study of other keyboards, including the organ, by such notables as Werckmeister, Blankenburg 1739, J.S. Bach (via Forkel via Bach's sons, C.P.E. and W.F. in 1802¹⁴), Handel (via his friend, Granville, via Engle in 1874¹⁵), C.P.E. Bach 1759¹⁶, Lohlein 1765, Burney 1773¹⁷, and Turk 1789 to name a few. Most of these can be summed up by C.P.E.’s remark in his essay on keyboard playing: ‘Those who concentrate on the harpsichord grow accustomed to playing in only one color, and the varied touch which the competent clavichordist brings to the harpsichord remains a mystery to them. This may sound strange, since one would think that all performers could express only one kind of sound on the harpsichord. To test its truth, ask two people, one a good clavichordist, and the other a harpsichordist, to play on the latter’s instrument. The same piece containing varied embellishments, and then decide whether both people have produced the same effect.’ Forkel tells us that J.S. 'preferred the clavichord to the harpsichord' and that 'both for practice and intimate use he regarded the clavichord as the best instrument for study and preferred to express on it his finest feelings.’ Although this statement comes to us as third-hand information, there seems no reason to doubt it's truth if you have ever heard Bach's music played on the clavichord. I love Charles Burney's recounting of the student recital he attended in Vienna which was begun by a little girl who played ' . . . upon a small but not good pianoforte. The neatness of the child’s execution did not so much surprise me, though uncommon, as her expression. All the ‘pianos’ and ‘fortes’ were so judiciously attended to; and there was such shading-off of such passages, and such force given to others, as nothing but the best teaching, of greatest natural feeling and sensibility could produce. I inquired of Signor Giorgio, an Italian who attended her, upon what instrument she practiced at home, and was answered, "upon the clavichord".'